Formal System to Control the Flow of Materials

Case Study – Big D Company TASK 1 1. 1 In order to advise the management on the installation of a more formal system to control the flow of materials and goods from supplier through stores and production to dispatch we must first summarize the current problem areas confronted by the Big D. †¢ Problem areas in Big D Company are presented in the order shown in the paragraph o On the highly standard material sizes, more than enough for one order might be purchased and in most cases full lengths would be ordered rather than the exact fraction needed. Some of the ordered exceeds the immediate requirements resulting in the purchasing of the same material without verifying the available stock. o Molded plastics were sometimes bought in excess of immediate needs and the quantities shown on the bill of materials were note amended. o Materials brought in from the supplier were not crossed checked with the Big D records and taken directly to the production or assembly. o Shop works were not scheduled and machines were idle and the foreman worked on any order. o No formal purchasing system Completed jobs were not recorded and sometimes units were assembled in advance of the completion of the entire lot. o The sales and production records indicated frequent early deliveries or o Quite a few times completed orders were kept in storage room †¦ which caused lost orders. o The superintendent usually allowed himself more time than was necessary for ordering, machining and assembly. Again this caused loss of order. o The company had not formal inventory control system. o Not records were kept of raw materials. o An Informal tabulation of finished goods was used. o Job were frequently sold even before completion A second lots were started before the first was finished, o No formal production planning and inventory control activity. †¢ The Proposed for Appropriate Structure for the Purchasing Function Purchasing department is considered the backbone of any org anization. One role of the purchasing department is to procure all necessary materials needed for production or daily operation of the company. For a manufacturing company, this might include raw materials such as iron, steel, aluminum or plastics, but it also might include tools, machinery, delivery trucks or even the office supplies needed for the secretaries and sales team.The purchasing department also makes sure there is always sufficient product on the shelves to keep the customers happy and keep the store well-stocked. It is especially important to keep inventory ordering at a reasonable level; investing large amounts of capital in excess stock could result in storage problems and in a shortage of capital for other expenditures such as advertising or research and development. Purchasing also oversees all of the vendors that supply a company with the items it needs to operate properly. Couple of conclusions was made after studying the problems noted above.First, it is quite cl ear that a formal structure must be put in place. Secondly, a formal inventory control system & production planning must be introduced. Having these in place, the company will avoid losing orders and in time will solve all the above problems. It is proposed here that the purchasing function to be structured in a CENTRALIZED way. Centralized purchasing structures are characterized by all purchases, being managed by a central purchasing group. In this approach, the operating units are consulted but are not fully responsible for their own buying.Centralized purchasing provides the firm with a single, collective sourcing and buying power. This model captures a large part of the potential corporate purchasing synergies, but there is little user control and responsiveness to local needs. The primary advantage of centralized purchasing is to realize a favorable price due to accumulated volumes. With centralized purchasing, the actual ordering process is centralized. The purchasing function will be organized by the superintendent in a manner intended to help meet the purchasing goals of the board.The purchasing function includes the following responsibilities: †¢ making purchases for all departments in accordance with applicable laws and regulations, including, board policy, the superintendent’s directives, good purchasing practices and ethical principles; †¢ establishing and enforcing a system for approving the accounting for purchases and for receiving all materials; †¢ Establishing a practical degree of standardization of equipment, supplies and materials with sufficient flexibility to meet unique needs of the company Purchasing ProcessThere are many reasons why a formal process must be followed including the prevention of fraud, cost saving, compliance with regulations, management of risk and control. Approved Suppliers Approval Process and Segregation of Responsibilities Audit Trail Accounting Automation Purchasing Process Flowchart [pic] Th ere is sometimes a significant amount of effort required to ensure that a supplier is appropriate for a particular category of goods or services. They should be able to supply goods and services that meet requirements of quality and fit for purpose.They should be reliable financially sound and not present a commercial or reputation risk and their prices should be competitive. It makes no sense to perform the relevant research on a supplier each time goods or services are required. By developing preferred suppliers, longer term sustainable relationships can be developed that deliver a better value for money. Approval Process and Segregation of Responsibilities The principles of approval and segregation of responsibilities provides an organization with a control to reduce the risk of fraud.The requirement for the approval of a purchase requisition prevents inappropriate purchases being made and the separation of responsibilities to unconnected parts of the buying organization helps to reduce the risk of collusion. Audit Trail A formal purchasing process that records a predefined set of processes allows the path of events to be examined retrospectively to identify errors or deliberate breaches of policy. Accounting The organization has a legal responsibility to account for their finances including for the goods and services that they procure.It is important therefore that proper records are maintained e. g. to record dates, prices and department details as well as to categorize goods and services appropriately to distinguish between capital goods and expenses for example. This can have a crucial bearing on how the finances of the organization are described which in turn can have a tax and profitability impact. Automation A standard process allows for automation and the use of technology which reduces the cost of the process. 1. 2 A Purchasing system is defined in investopedia as a method used by the organization to buy products and/or services.A purchasing system manages the entire acquisition process, from requisition, to purchase order, to product receipt, to payment. Purchasing systems are a key component of effective inventory management in that they monitor existing stock and help companies determine what to buy, how much to buy and when to buy it. A popular purchasing system is based on economic order quantity models. Purchasing systems makes the purchasing process more efficient and helps the organization reduce supply costs.Computerized purchasing systems can cut companies’ administrative costs, shorten the length of the purchase cycle and reduce human error, thereby minimizing shortages. They can also simplify order tracking and make it easier to manage purchasing budgets by quickly creating expenditure reports. Ways to improve Purchasing system 1. Make past-performance evaluations more meaningful. As long as neither outstanding nor mediocre performance is significantly differentiated, past-performance reports will not provi de a meaningful incentive for anyone.For large supplies, bring in interviewers trained in eliciting differentiated information to guide evaluators through report cards. 2. Reward suppliers for recommending cost-saving ideas. Before issuing a request for proposals, give potential bidders an opportunity to suggest requirements changes that would result in big cost savings with little performance penalty. 4. Use contests as a procurement technique. 5. Make successful supply management experience a promotion criterion for staff.Purchasing System could also be improved through performance management and benchmarking. Performance measurement is a tool to help managers control the outcomes of their organizations. It enables them to be the driver rather than a passenger on their organizational journey. PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT At the strategic level, we use a three-stage top down approach, which takes into account the conflicting interests of different groups of stakeholder. Key performance areas covering the whole spectrum of stakeholder requirements are defined.Elements to measure in each of the key performance areas are identified. One or more performance indicators for each element to measure are considered. The following diagram summarises the approach: [pic] The performance measurement system should be: Complete – The set of performance indicators should measure whether all stakeholder requirements are being met. Each indicator should be operationally and economically feasible to measure. Consistent – All major actions that can be taken by an organisation should affect an indicator and hence be subject to measurement.Effective – Each indicator should be a measure of current performance that is amenable to management action to change its value in the future. The set of indicators should encourage the necessary behaviour to bring about significant and continuous improvement for all stakeholders. Transparent – Whenever possible, indicator s should be developed to allow comparisons to be made and benchmarking to be undertaken. As summarized blow, the set-up and continuous improvement of the management system resides in â€Å"Plan†, â€Å"Check† and â€Å"Act. [pic] 1. 3 Staff Responsible for goods & services and their respective roles: At present only the following staffs have either direct or indirect responsibility for goods: |Staff Member |Roles | |Purchasing Manager |Purchase of materials. Obtain casting, materials and parts | | |indicated. |Foreman |Work on manufacturing orders. Keep staff & machines busy. Also | | |responsible to meet the estimated completion dates. Check off each| | |part of the quantity | |Superintendent |Ordering material, machining and assembly of goods. |Superintendent’s Secretary |Updates the traffic function | |Superintendent’s employees |Receiving & warehousing materials | Based on the proposed structure, the following is the recommended procurement function: |Position |Responsibilities | |Procurement Director |Major duties include oversight of all procurement functions. |Senior Procurement Analyst |Responsible for contributing to and continually improving an efficient and | | |cost-effective process designed to assist Institution staff in their procurement of | | |goods and services through an integrated procurement process of Accounts Payable, | | |Purchasing and Receiving, in compliance with Institutional policies and government | | |regulations.As a contributing member of the Procurement Team, is committed to the | | |common purpose, performance goals and approach for which team members hold themselves | | |mutually accountable. Performance evaluation is based on a combination of team success| | |and individual accomplishment. | | | |Senior Administrative Assistant   II |Responsible for general office management, Procurement help desk, training | | |presentations, processing major bid documents, maintaining  auditable records of | | |procurement files, data input into ERP system for Payables activity   | | | | |Procurement Systems Assistant |Responsible for invoices related to purchase orders, stock room orders and | | |sub-contracts and non-po related invoices. | | | |Procurement Systems Coordinator |The Coordinator handles and coordinates all aspects of the Procurement System/Process;| | |ensures system integrity, process assurance, analysis/testing and continuous | | |operations. Serves as Supervisor for   the payables team and payables processing for | | |the institution. The Position has an interest in owning and improving current | | |administrative systems necessary to the success of the organization. |Procurement Representative |Responsible for purchasing and payable of all items and Contract for services | | |. Responsible for purchasing and payable of all items. | |Senior Procurement Representative |Responsible for assisting the Operations group in developing procurement | | |specifications, selecting supplier markets, maintaining appropriate business | | |relationships with the Institution's vendor base and processing procurement | | |documentation including bids, Purchase Orders and Accounts Payable certificates. | |Additionally, will also assist  in all major contract development; and will act as the | | |Procurement staff supervisor in the absence of the Director. | |Reimbursement Facilitator I |Shared responsibility for the audit & data entry of all Request for Payments. | |Assistant Coordinator |Assists in ordering and stockroom operations. | |Stockroom Coordinator |Manages stockroom operations. | 1. 4 Supply chain management (SCM) is concerned with the flow of products and information between supply chain members' organizations.Recent development in technologies enables the organization to avail information easily in their premises. These technologies are helpful to coordinates the activities to manage the supply chain. The cost of information is decreased due to the increasing rate of technologies. In the integrated supply chain model as shown below bi-directional arrow reflect the accommodation of reverse materials and information feedback flows. Manager needs to understand that information technology is more than just computers. Except computer data recognition equipment, communication technologies, factory automation and other hardware and services are included. [pic]The importance of information in an integrated supply chain management environment: IT infrastructure capabilities provides a competitive positioning of business initiatives like cycle time reduction, implementation, implementing redesigned cross-functional processes. 1. Satisfying customer has become something of a corporate obsession. Serving the customer in the best, most efficient and effective manner has become critical. 2. Information is a crucial factor in the managers' abilities to reduce inventory and human resource requirement to a competitive level. Information flows plays a crucial role in strategic planning. Supply chain organizational dynamics:Big D participating in supply chain management initiatives accept a specific role to perform. It also shares the joint belief that it and all other supply chain participants will be better off because of this collaborative effort. Power within the supply chain is a central issue. It has been identified that there are five basic levels of participation of individual firms with in the interorganizational system. 1. Remote Input/Output mode: In this case the member participates from a remote location within the application system supported by one or more higher-level participants. 2. Application processing node: In this case a member develops and shares a single application such as an inventory query or order processing system. 3.Multi participant exchange node : In this case the member develops and shares a network interlinking itself and any number of lower level participants with whom it has an e stablished business relationship. 4. Network control node: In this case the member develops and shares a network with diverse application that may be used by many different types of lower level participants. 5. Integrating network node: In this case the member literally becomes a data communications/data processing utility that integrates any number of lower level participants and applications in real times. Information and Technology: Application of SCM: In the development and maintenance of Supply chain's information systems both software and hardware must be addressed. Hardware includes computer's input/output devices and storage media.Software includes the entire system and application programme used for processing transactions management control, decision-making and strategic planning. Recent development in Supply chain management software is: 1. A software programme which is useful for computing freight costs, compares transportation mode rates, analyse cost and service effect iveness of carrier. 2. A Supply Chain planning software programme which is used for demand forecasting, replenishment & manufacturing tools for accurate planning and scheduling of activities. 3. A software system called Transportation Network can be used for optimization and streamlining the bidding and award process. . There is a software programme to provide a programme capable managing the entire supply chain. Electronic Data Interchange: Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) refers to computer-to-computer exchange of business documents in a standard format. EDI describe both the capability and practice of communicating information between two organizations electronically instead of traditional form of mail, courier, & fax. The benefits of EDI are: 1. Quick process to information. 2. Better customer service. 3. Reduced paper work. 4. Increased productivity. 5. Improved tracing and expediting. 6. Cost efficiency. 7. Competitive advantage. 8. Improved billing.Though the use of EDI supp ly chain partners can overcome the distortions and exaggeration in supply and demand information by improving technologies to facilitate real time sharing of actual demand and supply information. Data warehouse: Data warehouse is a consolidated database maintained separately from an organization's production system database. Big D can used a multiple databases. A data warehouse is organized around informational subjects rather than specific business processes. Data held in data warehouses are time dependent, historical data may also be aggregated. Communication Improvement Information technology can improve the flow of communication within the workplace. Electronic communication methods used in the workplace include email, voicemail, videoconferences, online newsletters, instant messages and the Intranet.The Intranet, a company exclusive website, can be a great way for you, as a manager, to obtain feedback from your workers. Task 2 2. 1 The negotiation process has become a more impo rtant element in the supply chain process as companies look to reduce their expenditure whilst increasing their purchasing power. This means that purchasing manager must negotiate increasingly better rates with suppliers whilst maintaining or increasing quality and service. So Far Big D has been on the losing of this exercise. In other words, Big D has been paying more than it should have and it goes without saying that the quality and services have been going south as well.Purchasing manager should enter all negotiations with clearly defined objectives. Without having objectives, the possibility for the purchasing manager to compromise price and the quality or service is significantly raised. The Purchasing manager should enter strong into discussions to negotiate with the vendor with precise objectives that they wish to achieve for their company. The objective should not be absolute and should allow for some flexibility. However, the manager should also ensure that they do not dev iate from the objectives and allow themselves to negotiate on areas that were not part of the discussion. Negotiation is an important part of the role of the purchasing Manager.It is a skill that is learnt and training can help purchasing staff in understanding what is needed when negotiating with vendors. 2. 2 Big D’s distribution channels is in complete mess and need a face-lift. Without distribution even the best product or service fails. It is believed that Big D must undergo two levels: 1) To organise communication, which was discussed earlier and 2) To organise exchange through distribution. Distribution is important because: A. it affects sales – if it's not available it can't be sold. Most customers won't wait. As it’s the case in Big D B. distribution affects profits and competitiveness since it can contribute up to 50% of the final selling price of some goods.This affects cost competitiveness as well as profits since margins are squeezed by distributio n costs C. delivery is seen as part of the product influencing customer satisfaction. Distribution and its associated customer service play a big part in relationship marketing. Decisions about physical distribution are key strategic decisions. Channels change throughout a product's life cycle. Changing lifestyles, aspirations and expectations along with the IT explosion offer new opportunities of using distribution to create a competitive edge. Controlling the flow of products and services from producer to customer requires careful consideration. It can determine success or failure in the market place.Decisions about levels of stock, minimum order quantities, delivery methods, delivery frequency and warehouse locations have major cash flow implications as well as customer satisfaction implications. Distribution Strategy Distribution strategy is influenced by the market structure, the firm's objectives, its resources and of course its overall marketing strategy. a) The first strateg ic decision proposed here is that the distribution is to be: Intensive and mass distribution into all outlets for all the small simple fittings. In addition, Exclusive restricted distribution for all the large flow meters weighting upto 70 KG. b) The next strategic decision clarifies the number of levels within a channel such as agents, distributors, wholesalers, retailers. In some Japanese markets there are many, many intermediaries involved. [pic] 3.The current situation in Big D’s in terms of security of goods is not quite what it ought to be in company with years of operations. A lot of security issues exist. Sales had been lost to competitors and other sales had been lost due to setting estimate. No company had no formal inventory control system, hence, no records was kept of raw materials, purchased parts or manufactured parts on hand. There were no records kept on accumulated parts and even worst, the parts were stored in bins in the assembly department. The following are some recommendation on Production & Operation of Stocks and ways to reduce loss and theft of goods: There are three types of stock that a business can hold: Stocks of raw materials (inputs brought from suppliers waiting to be used in the production process) †¢ Work in progress (incomplete products still in the process of being made) †¢ Stocks of finished products (finished goods of acceptable quality waiting to be sold to customers) The aim of stock control is to minimise the cost of holding these stocks whilst ensuring that there are enough materials for production to continue and be able to meet customer demand. The marketing department should be able to provide sales forecasts for the coming weeks or months and so allow stock control managers to judge the type, quantity and timing of stocks needed.It is the purchasing department’s responsibility to order the correct quantity and quality of these inputs, at a competitive price and from a reliable supplier who will deliver on time. As it is difficult to ensure that a business has exactly the correct amount of stock at any one time, Big D should hold buffer or safe stock. Big D must introduce effectiveness and efficiency as essential factors in internal control in the management of its operation. †¢Inventory management: Big D will have an inventory clerk assigned to the requisition and/or the distribution of items. It could add inventory management to the job description of one of the workers.As the theft of any item is a loss to any company, managers must implement inventory procedures that ensure the smooth requisition and dissemination of items while ensuring that items are accounted for. †¢Separation of accounts payable and receivable: Avoid theft and fraud by one or more employees by separating the accounts payable and receivable duties. It’s best if Big D introduces segregation of duties in the Accounting Dept. and the management must continuously monitor the account ing records. Big D must ensure that internal control is deep in its organization. Employees may steal for different reasons but good internal control measures should reduce theft.Big D can implement inventory management systems, to reduce the likelihood of employee theft. REFERENCES Supply Chain Management: Strategy, Planning, and Operations, Second Edition by Sunil Chopra and Peter Meindl (May 1, 2003) Purchasing and Supply Chain Management by Robert M. Monczka, Robert B. Handfield, Larry C. Giunipero and James L. Patterson (Mar 8, 2011) 5th Edition South-Western College/West; 5 edition (March 8, 2011) ISBN-13: 978-0538476423 Purchasing and Supply Chain Management: Analysis, Strategy, Planning and Practice by A. J. van Weele (Dec 9, 2009) ———————– Case Study – Big D Company Purchasing (BUS441/20762P) [Prepared by Mohammed] [13th May 2012]

George Reid Andrews Afro Latin America

GEORGE REID ANDREWS: AFRO-LATIN AMERICA In this paper, I would arguer that the history of USA is intertwined with the issue of Blacks – their enslavement and freedom but it has not as yet been focused that this subject has far greater impact in Central and Latin America, thus the greater impact of blacks in Central and Latin America would be the main theme or argument of this paper. This book, Afro-Latin America by George Reid, is the first attempt to focus on this side of the African Diaspora. With remarkable skill George Reid Andrews has woven the history of people who came from Africa to South America – broadly speaking. He traces their path from slavery to freedom and how this in turn left its stamp on the politics, economics and culture of this region. As individuals and as groups they pursued the path towards freedom, equality and acquirement of citizenship by being part of the military, political movements, civic bodies, unions, religious activities and in various cultural streams. The book travels through two centuries and should be of interest in all interested in the past, present and future of Latin America. It is one of the best anthropological accounts of this region. The style is gripping with detailed statement of experiences, of the people of African origin in the former colonies of Spain and Portugal and the stamp of their influence on these parts on all walks of life – society, economics and culture. While the history of the Blacks is well researched and ably presented in USA, it is not so with Latin America where there is still an air of mystery and vacuum. It is ironical that it should be so considering the fact that it has the highest number of Africans residing here outside the African continent (Fagundes 68-78). The book starts with the stunning statement – â€Å"New Census Shows Hispanics now Even with Blacks, the headline proclaimed. Documenting a profound shift in the racial and ethnic composition of American Society, the 2000 census of the United States showed that, as a result of the continuing immigration from Latin America during the 1990s the national Hispanic population had grown by more than 60%. For the first time ever the country’s 35. 3 million Hispanic residents slightly exceeded the black population of 34. million† (Andrews 3). The Blacks and Hispanics are not always distinct groups as is generally thought of. In Latin America blacks comprise a quarter of the population. The â€Å"heart of the New World African Diaspora† (Andrews 3) lies not in the north of the border in USA but in South America. During the slave period ten times more Africans came to Spanish and Portuguese America than to USA. By the close of 1900 the former outnumbered the latter by 3:1 – 22% of the population in Latin America while it was 12% in USA. With immigration, commerce and tourism ties are getting stronger and hence it is necessary to sketch a history of the Latin American African Diaspora as distinct from USA African Diaspora. In this book such an attempt has been made. The term Afro-Latin-American made its debut sometime during the 70s. Hitherto it was Afro-Venezuelans, Afro-Cubans etc. Latin America is the cluster of American countries under the rule of Spain or Portugal from 1500 to 1800 (Madrigal 99-108). There are many other people living in this region – not only those who have come from Africa; there are Indians, Whites, Asians etc. But whether as a minority or majority the Black presence is strong in the field of agriculture and slavery. Blackness has become synonymous with a lower social status leading to a popular mass culture. The proportion of Blacks fell because of neglect disease and death. Also there was more mobility and mixing in the south unlike the rigidity of the north. Black tended to become whiter with material success; the Black became the Pardo or Mulatto. The idea was to bar them from European ancestry privileges (Aguiar 299-308). The book is not about the race as defined scientifically but as used socially. It looks at the issue from two angles – it delves on the multi racial society of Afro-Latin-America and also as the single largest group of Africans who had been uprooted from their original homeland. Whatever the shade of black the author uses the term to refer to that group whose African ancestry is known and recognized. The previous plantation regions of Latin America were shaped irrevocably â€Å"by the presence of Africans and their descendants† (Andrews 284). Hence to understand what it is like today one has to know about the people who carved it to be what it is now. In reacting to the constraints of slavery on the one hand there were the obvious violent actions like running away, revolt, theft and attack while on the other there was a slower but more lasting response like negotiating with the masters, taking into hand speed of work, appealing to courts, forming families and keeping alive African practices (Aguiar 299). Runaway slaves formed communities, black militias and mutual aid societies were formed and the people expressed their feeling through formation of athletic, social and cultural clubs. Soon civic organizations, political parties and newspapers made their debut. It all rolled into the formation of civil rights movement. By the end of 1800 slavery had been abolished in Latin America (Halperin 489-495). Chapter one covers the first years of slavery while in chapters four and five the author tries to explain how the colored communities tried to whiten and blacken themselves in trying to find their identity that would be acceptable to their own community as well as to the Whites against the background of a growing mixed population. Here, there arose a problem. In USA there was a clear cut line dividing the Blacks and Whites. But in Latin America the Afro-Latin people penetrated different layers of society and economy with politics having an influence. Many of the Blacks were free and could not be bracketed with the salves. Europeans, Native Americans and people from the Asia added to the cocktail to make a mixing of blood rarely seen elsewhere. Thus the concept of race no longer remained a scientific issue but related to socio-economic factors (Bizumic 871-899). The biggest influence was felt in the sphere of culture – in dancing, music and religion. Andrew goes into detail saying how initially they were termed as barbaric by the Europeans and then in the 20th century there began a change of attitude when the idea of nationhood took roots. Capoeira, Cndomble and Carnaval are three of the significant cultural expressions that have their roots in the tradition of Africa. There is an underlying belief that Africa is very much throbbing and alive in these modern cultural renditions. Ironically the Europeans have also taken these on and absorbed them in their psyche. The book focuses on these aspects and at the end the reader is left with a feeling that more could have been said. Instead of devoting separate chapters on these themes he has scattered these all through the book. He has focused more on economics and politics. After reading the book there is the feeling that the problems of race are going to be more complex in Latin America than what is going on in USA (Shrestha 113-139). In this sense this book is a good introduction to understand the present to gauge the future. The book however would be rather heavy for the casual reader but it is great for serious thinkers and scholars. The author details the relationship and effect of the coming of the people of Africa to Latin America. There are detailed notes and bibliography to guide the students. It is ideal for all interested in the race factor and the trans-Atlantic slave trade that happened in this part of the world as distinct from USA. Slavery is stressed in USA but the fact is that it existed much earlier in places like Brazil. The book reveals new facts that have so far remained unknown. It will enlighten the reader about the birth of the countries of the western world and the large part the people of African descent had played for it to become what we see today. This book introduces the reader to the history of the Blacks connected with Brazil, Colombia, Cuba, Venezuela, Puerto Rica etc. and supports the thesis that the influence of blacks in the South America is far more greater than that of mainland United States. Works cited Aguiar, Gilberto. Effects of demographic and ethnohistorical factors on average heterozygosities of South Amerindians. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 88. 3, (2000): 299-308. Andrews, George Reid. Afro-Latin America, 1800-2000. NY: Oxford University PressUS, 2004. Bizumic, Boris. A cross-cultural investigation into a reconceptualization of ethnocentrism. European Journal of Social Psychology 39. 6, (2009): 871-899. Fagundes, Nelson. Genetic, geographic, and linguistic variation among South American Indians. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 117. 1, (2002): 68-78. Halperin, Edward. The poor, the Black, and the marginalized as the source of cadavers. Clinical Anatomy, 20. 5, (2007): 489-495. Madrigal, Leo. Ethnicity, gene flow, and population subdivision in Limon, Costa Rica. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 114. 2, (2001): 99-108. Shrestha, Nanda. Black migration at the margin of freedom. International Journal of Population Geography, 9. 2, (2003): 113-139.

Adjudication, the legal process of resolving a dispute

The formal giving or pronouncing of a judgment or decree in a court proceeding; also the judgment or decision was given. The entry of a decree by a court in respect to the parties in a case. It implies a hearing by a court, after notice, of legal evidence on the factual issue(s) involved. The equivalent of a determination. It indicates that the claims of all the parties thereto have been considered and set at rest.Three types of disputes are resolved through adjudication: disputes between private parties, such as individuals or corporations; disputes between private parties and public officials; and disputes between public officials or public bodies. The requirements of full adjudication include notice to all interested parties (all parties with a legal interest in, or legal right affected by, the dispute) and an opportunity for all parties to present evidence and arguments. The adjudicative process is governed by formal rules of evidence and procedure. Its objective is to reach a reasonable settlement of the controversy at hand. A decision is rendered by an impartial, passive fact finder, usually a judge, jury, or administrative tribunal. The adjudication of a controversy involves the performance of several tasks. The trier must establish the facts in controversy, and define and interpret the applicable law, or, if no relevant law exists, fashion a new law to apply to the situation. Complex evidentiary rules limit the presentation of proofs, and the Anglo-American tradition of Stare Decisis, or following precedents, controls the outcome. However, the process of applying established rules of law is neither simple nor automatic. Judges have considerable latitude in interpreting the statutes or case law upon which they base their decisions.A hearing in which the parties are given an opportunity to present their evidence and arguments is essential to an adjudication. The Anglo-American law presumes that the parties to the dispute are in the best position to know the facts of their particular situations and develop their own proofs. If the hearing is before a court, formal rules of procedure and evidence govern; a hearing before an Administrative Agency is generally less structured.Following the hearing, the decision maker is expected to deliver a reasoned opinion. This opinion is the basis for review if the decision is appealed to a higher tribunal (a court of appeals). It also helps ensure that decisions are not reached arbitrarily. Finally, a well-reasoned opinion forces the judge to carefully think through his or her decision in order to be able to explain the process followed in reaching it. Adjudication of a controversy generally ensures a fair and equitable outcome. Because courts are governed by evidentiary and procedural rules, as well as by stare decisis, the adjudicative process assures litigants of some degree of efficiency, uniformity, and predictability of result.

None Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 36

None - Essay Example Thus, Socrates sees wisdom primarily a practice of the moral life, in which the main role is played by such realization. Socrates connects wisdom with ethics, since he considers man as a social being living among other people, and therefore obliged to follow the ethical principles of harmonious coexistence with them. Socrates believes that morality and the truth provided by wisdom are identical concepts. A good man is both a moral and intelligent in his/her actions, since he/she is guided by moral principles. All actions that are based on virtue are good. A man who knows the essence of such acts does not want to commit a bad act, while a person who has no idea of morality can make a mistake, even trying to do good. Every virtue is wisdom, and only wise men are able to commit good deeds. Considering wisdom, Socrates argues that the first step to wisdom involves ignorance (Plato 26). Its task is to justify the need to search for the truth that is possible using dialogue as a comparison and analysis of the various points of view. Wisdom requires an active search for the truth that suggests a denial from ready-made answers. Based on this understanding, Socrates says the following: â€Å"I am very conscious that I am not wise at all† (Plato 26). Socrates makes demands not only to himself but also to other people so that they could understand that there is nothing worse than to assume that they know everything (Plato 33). Nevertheless, there is evidence to suggest that Socrates thinks that he is much closer to wisdom than all other people. In particular, when in the Apology the oracle calls Socrates a wise man, the philosopher demonstrates faith in relation to the words of the oracle. Though he attempts to verify the validity of these words, nevertheless, given th at the wisdom presupposes the recognition of personal ignorance, Socrates gives a hint that he has the wisdom. The main reason of this is in the fact that

Human resource Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Human resource - Essay Example ndergoing rapid changes characterised by the emergence of new enterprises, intensification of global competition and the growth of the diverse workforce.2 These pressures are compelling companies to reposition themselves strategically to attract and retain the competent workforce. Management of human resources is intricate and challenging because workers have personal needs, objectives, motivations, interests and desires that conflict with business goals. HR management and planning is a useful tool for reconciling these conflicts and ensuring that organizations resources are utilized effectively.3 Today, human resource managers are faced with issues such as management of diversity, globalisation and work life balance. HR practitioners play a critical role in an organisation to ensure effective acquisition and utilisation of HR. They are tasked with creating and implementing policies for guiding human resource in an organization, controlling HR programmes and guidelines, offering advice and counsel to the workers, and perform other functions that can assist line managers to execute their duties.4 However, in the execution of their duties the HR practitioners encounter innumerable challenges in the modern world. In the modern society, most families in developed countries such as UK have joined the labour force. In circumstances when husband and wife are both in the working class, the human resource managers are faced with a challenge of helping such parents with work-life balance programs to increase their productivity.5 Therefore, it makes sense for the company’s human resource to come up with programmes to assist workers establish a balance between work and family responsibilities. The HR can implement programmes to assist workers achieve their family obligations. For example, programmes such as child care at the workplace, sick leave policies, job sharing education policies, picking or dropping their children at school, etc. For example, Unilever company offer

Adidas Company in Sports Industry Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Adidas Company in Sports Industry - Coursework Example To Adidas Company, putting too many efforts into the whole career thing and strict adhering to certain routines during life do not coincide with the overall expectations. Instead, the company is about passion and a belief that one should push own limits everywhere and all the times. It is sports as the foundation of everything that company does; it is about the redefining the benchmark for discovering and shaping the future; it is the fair play which creates the basis for company’s performance among similar businesses (Our expectations, 2015). All these considerations create the mission of Adidas Group as the company which strives to be the global leader in the provision of sports goods and the services of which are built on the passion for sports and a sporting lifestyle. Values of the company describe the desired culture, which are the promotion of sports as the foundation of all Adidas does, passion for constant moving, innovation and the improvement, the integrity approach based on such characteristics as honesty, openness, ethical and fair attitude toward others, and the understanding of the diversity of ideas, strengths and interests in building the company’s brands. At the same time, however, one should understand that vision and mission which are the visual part of the company’s strategy are different from the forces that embed innovation. According to (Dobni, 2010), innovation is premised on the market orientation, the creation of value and defining of the new opportunity space.

Nonprofit Sector Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Nonprofit Sector - Essay Example Secondly, comments have been directed toward nonprofit organizations in regards to their lack of market discipline as a predominant cause of their limited self-sustainability. Other factors involve rising service and administration costs, and the increased competition for limited donations amongst nonprofit organisations. By becoming a commercial enterprise nonprofits are able to leverage former sources of funding. Nonprofits are seeking additional revenue such as setting up peripheral commercial businesses as a way to add to their fee paying programs that do not generate profits. In many cases this is a strategy in which they can raise community awareness of their cause and simultaneously make money. Some nonprofits have sought to commercialize their key programs, relying less on donations and moving to fee payments by beneficiaries, or creating contracts with government organisations or corporations. Alternatively, nonprofits may charge a corporation, which in turn charges its beneficiaries for a once free service.

Research paper Bachelor Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Research paper Bachelor - Essay Example 2. This was predominantly media circulated story. It is essential to know that media had been unbiased throughout its reporting and distorting reality had not taken place. It is a fact that more media dependent people become, interaction with other humans lessens proportionately and our understanding of human nature diminishes. "As media remain a primary information and entertainment source, many scholars express concern that interpersonal discussions about important social topics will continue to decline leading to accelerated civic and social disengagement of the audience members, Wicks (2001, p.5). 4. If in reality, the victim is a prostitute, how could the men be justified in forcing their attention on an unwilling prostitute and it has to be treated as rape, even though it was not violent and here, it was a violent sexual assault, which has no justification. It is wrong to presume that prostitutes do not have morality or lack the power of saying no. 5. Media coverage had been overwhelming. Media can produce mass hysteria, sway people's minds, alter opinions, force accused to be flushed out into open, create awareness and question if incident was isolated. It has to be probed if media had been successful in this case. 7. Presence of two Muslims amongst accused has created a cultural question.

Arbitration Law paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Arbitration Law paper - Essay Example For example, section 1(c) stipulates â€Å"in matters governed by this part the court should not intervene except as provided by this part†. Nevertheless, the Act makes several provisions for court intervention at various stages of the proceeding. Arbitration agreement is an agreement to submit to arbitration present or future disputes.6 The Arbitration Act 1996 and the Scotland equivalent, Arbitration Act 2010, have several provisions with regards to requirements for a valid arbitration agreement; for example, it should be in writing.7 If the agreement does not satiate any of the requirements, a party can challenge its validity in court. The court has the power to rule on the validity of the arbitration agreement. It is crucial for courts to exercise powers with regards to the arbitration agreement, so as to maintain autonomy of the parties in making an agreement. The will of the parties to enter into the agreement should be genuine, and therefore if a party is coerced into t he agreement, the court should invalidate it. Section 10(2) of the Scotland Act goes ahead and invalidates any provision in the arbitral agreement that prevents the bringing of a legal action. Moreover, courts, pursuant to section 7 have the power to severe an arbitration agreement from the rest of the contract where the contract is held void for some reason. In Heyman v Darwins the House of Lords held that, â€Å"an arbitration agreement was not terminated by a breach of the underlying contract.†8 In Amir Weissfisch V. Anthony Julius, Rami Weissfisch, and Philip Davis9, the court upheld an arbitration agreement where the arbitrator would rule on whether he has jurisdiction over arbitration, even though the party argued that the agreement was void due to fraudulent acts committed by the arbitrator. With regards to the jurisdiction of the tribunal, section 31 enshrines the competence-competence principle, whereby the tribunal is empowered to rule on its own jurisdiction. Secti on 32(1) provides that the court may, on the application of a party to arbitral proceeding (upon notice to the other parties); determine any question as to the substantive jurisdiction of the tribunal. Courts have been entertaining many cases of this nature. In First Options v Kaplan10 the Supreme Court ruled that clear and unmistakable evidence should be submitted by the parties as agreed to submit to the arbitrator the question of the arbitrator’s jurisdiction. If not, the court will determine whether or not the arbitrator had a mandate to arbitrate.11 In Paine Webber Inc. v Mohammad S Elahi, the Court of Appeals held that, unless the parties specifically agreed otherwise it was incumbent for the court to determine both jurisdictional arbitrability and subject matter it was empowered to take up. Section 7 empowers the court to stay proceedings and refer parties to arbitration if an action subject to the agreement is commenced. An application to the effect is made by the oth er party subject to taking steps in those proceeding, to answer the substantive claim against him.12 The law requires the court to grant a stay of legal proceeding unless it is satisfied that the arbitration agree

How to Redesign a Classroom to Optimize Learning Experience Essay Example for Free

How to Redesign a Classroom to Optimize Learning Experience Essay The overall learning goal for us students is to grasp what the instructor teaches in class and gain extra knowledge and abilities through class discussion and interaction. To that end, it’s best to study in an optimal learning environment, so as to keep focused in class and avoid distraction from externals. We pay for the service – our learning experience, hoping to maximize the efficiency and effectiveness of this kind of service. An optimal learning environment is beneficial to building a cohesive team in which members could communicate with each other, and to encouraging interactions among all the students and the professor. Through observation of major students behaviors, I find that the current physical environment in our classroom was somewhat defective. The following key points are summarized as major gaps or pitfalls in the current environment. Late Arrivals: I find that most of the students arrive in the classroom ahead of or on time. However, some may be late and walk in across the stage, thus distracting other’s attention in class. Uncomfortable Chairs: The pad on each seat can make annoying noise when we unfold it. This will distract other students’ attention, especially those who sit near the moving pads. Various Seating Preferences: students are seated randomly, most of students like to seat in the front row, and the outer of rows, leaving some seats in the middle empty, so the best capacity in the room isn’t fully utilized. Randomly seating also results in inconvenience for some group members to sit together. Inconvenient Seating Arrangement: the space between rows is narrow, so it’s not convenient for students to walk through and it’s always noisy to move the small pads connected to the seats. Moreover, it’s such a long row that it would be inconvenient and a waste of time to walk through one side to the middle or the other end. Less Efficient Equipment Blackboard and Projector: For those seating in the side areas and in the rear, the visibility of the projector isn’t so good. Similarly, when the professor writes on one side of the blackboard, those who seat in the other side have difficulty in reading the handwriting. Dim Lighting: the lighting in the classroom is a little dark that it’s easy for us to fall asleep. The arrangement of lights in the roof isn’t so rational that sometimes we can’t see the blackboards because of light reflecting. Insufficient Ventilation: The windows in the back are closed all the time and the air conditioning always creates an environment that is too cold or hot and dry. Students usually don’t feel very comfortable when there’re too many students in the classroom. Difficult Access to the Classroom: More often, only one door is open to the classroom, thus restricting students’ access to the classroom to only one way. Those who can’t find a seat near the door can only go the other side, and this would distract other’s attention. Besides, once the door is locked, the students can’t open it from outside, requiring help from those in the classroom. The above-mentioned points about the seating and facilities in the classroom would present unfavorable impacts on our learning experience. So a new layout of the classroom is required to help enhance our learning environment. Here I categorize the objectives into four points as the conceptual design principles. * To make full use of the 75 minutes in class, which means there’s no or little disruption during class. * Perfect seating arrangement to facilitate easy access and smooth movement. * Minimum discipline required relating to seating arrangement so that everyone will feel comfortable when in class. * Make facilities, such as blackboard and projector, lighting, acoustics, and walls, conducive to learning experience. (b) What specific improvement would your proposed redesign help accomplish? Generally speaking, students will learn best in a clean, comfortable, and quiet environment where there are no external disruptions and noises. So we need a positive classroom climate to allow us to meet the basic needs of physical and mental health. The following session is about the recommendations I make to help alleviate the gaps and thus enhance the learning experience. Physically Comfortable Chairs: We could improve the quality of the chairs by signing contracts with those chair-makers who could provide user-friendly chairs. That is to say, the activity space for writing and putting stuffs would be larger, and it’s best for the chairs to be soundless when we unfold the pads with them. Easy Access Seating Arrangements: I will redesign the current layout of the seats by dividing all these seats into four columns and four rows. There could be four seats per column for the middle two columns, and the other two sides columns could have five or six seats each. The distance between each row could be larger so as to allow sufficient space for individuals to learn. This kind of design could enable students to access to the seats easily without disturbing others much. The professor could also make minimum requirements that those who come early seat in the middle, thus those who are late for class could seat in the sided columns without distracting others. More importantly, since a team is usually composed of four persons, it’s also convenient for groups to sit together. Additionally, in this way, students will seat together more compactly, facilitating discussion among teachers and students. Larger Projector Screen and High-tech Handwriting: It would be best to widen the projector screen in this rectangular room. As I mentioned above, for those seat in the sides and rear, it’s hard to recognize some important contents in the slides projected on the screen (e. g. numbers, charts). Enlarging the projector screen would surely enhance the visibility of projector and hence improve our learning experience. Meanwhile, I noticed that sometimes the handwriting of the professor is hard to read. And those sitting aside couldn’t see the notes in the blackboard clearly. So I recommend that the professor use high-tech product such as the pad or IBM’s tablet-based pen, by which the professor could write on the screen of the laptop and it could then be projected in the blackboard screen. With enlarged screen, the visibility of handwriting could also be enhanced. Bright Lighting and â€Å"Audiovisual Scenario†: We need to add more electrical lights in our classroom and rearrange the light distribution. However, the lights couldn’t be too bright to harm the eyes and result in reflecting. More importantly, we need to consider the illuminance levels according to daylight, glaring and uniformity. Another thing we need to take into account is the lighting requirements for video images. So it’s best for us to have two distinctly lighting setups: a â€Å"bright† classroom with appropriate illuminance throughout the classroom, and an †audiovisual† scenario that limits light on the screen to a suitable level when we see vedios in class. Warm Color of walls: Choosing the right color for classroom walls is conducive to learning experience. The right pain color of the wall can transform a distracted environment into a focused space. White is a traditional color, but it could undermine the learning environment of the classroom. It reflects most of the lights that hits it, and could be harsh and exhaust our eyes. While taupe and cream colors of wall would be warmer, and could help students more focused. Evidence also shows that warm colors such as taupe and cream can stimulate creativity. Using different colors on the wall where there’re some facilities so as to remind the professor and students of the purpose of them. For example, the background color of the walls on which there are hangers could be light blue or purple, colors which can also help you relaxed and calmed. Optimized Ventilation: The method of distributing outdoor air in classroom has a positive impact on indoor air quality and thermal comfort of students. So it would be better if students could open the windows in the back wall when the class is finished. And students who come for the next class could close the windows before class, letting fresh air come in for 15-20 minutes. Moreover, It’s best to leave the two doors to the classroom open. On the one hand, it could expedite the flow rate of air and enhance the ventilation and exchange effectiveness. On the other hand, leaving two doors open would facilitate those late arrivals to find seats in the sides, so that they don’t need to go straightly in front of the teacher, thus diminishing distraction. External Diminished Noise and Distraction: Since the walls in the classroom are already sound proof, we don’t need to worry about the noise from outside. The major noise created by late arrivals to move through seats could be addressed through the new layout of seats and improved seat quality. Hence, students would be more focused in class. Clean Environment and Safety Facilities: Basically, a clean environment in the classroom is a must for students to gain the best learning experience. Students should be required to take with them the trashes after class, and the cleaners also need to tide the classrooms more frequently. Furthermore, It’s best to check the safety facilities in the classroom such as the fire alarm on a regular basis, say, twice a month. Because students will be relieved when they know they are learning in a safe place. In sum, the above-mentioned rearrangements are all considered to be physically, emotionally and academically favorable to the learning experience in this classroom. Once students are physically comfortable with the environment they are in, they will be emotionally focused on what they are learning and talking. Moreover, the academically improved learning equipment could maximize the learning experience the students would go through.

Space Power as Force Multiplier

Space Power as Force Multiplier CHAPTER – I INTRODUCTION 1. The Space has always been a great matter of interest to human race, which gazed and tried to explore this cosmic world for thousands of years. Even our own epics talk a lot about space and its utilisation. However, Science flourished during the European Renaissance and fundamental physical laws governing planetary motion were discovered, and the orbits of the planets around the Sun were calculated. The Chinese were the first to develop a rocket in around 1212 AD. In 1883, a Russian schoolmaster, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, first explained the mechanics of how a rocket could fly into space.[4]. Since then exploration and exploitation of the space has been a continued effort. This led to the unfolding of mysteries of the space world and thus using it for own advantages. 2. Military use of space started with the launch of an American reconnaissance satellite in 1960.[6]. 3. The phenomenal utilization and exploitation of the space medium has finally provided the users the power to gain advantage over the enemy. Traditionally, power has been related to explosive ordinance and target destruction. But in the post-Cold War world, the power most often delivered by airmen has taken the form of humanitarian aid: food, medical supplies, and heavy equipment.[8]. The meteorological satellites provide accurate weather data from any part of the world. Thus in past few years, space-based systems have enabled dramatic improvement in military and intelligence operations thus enhancing its capability, accuracy and fire power. Thus the Space medium emerging as Space Power and the most effective and widely used force multiplier. METHODOLOGY Statement Of Problem 4. To study and analyse the feasibility of Space Power to evolve as a frontline force multiplier for India and to critically examine the road ahead. Justification Of Study 5. Indias achievement in the field of space capability may not seem to be very advanced especially when compared with the accomplishments of the superpowers and elite members of the satellite club. However, one needs to look at the Indian space programme in isolation to fully understand the tremendous progress and achievements that have been made from such a humble beginning. 6. All the countries have developed launch vehicles as an offshoot of their ballistic missile projects, and their satellites were primarily intended for military use. Non- military applications were a spinoff of the military programmes, whereas India has developed space applications and launch vehicles for totally civilian use. The technology was also used within a broader framework to achieve socio-economic development, and military spin-offs have been incidental. Therefore, India has an inherent advantage as far as civilian support role is concerned however it needs special effort and attitude to develop military support application. Utilization of Space medium and Control of space based assets will be an important ingredient of future world power. President APJ Kalam has stated that accomplishments in space have traditionally been a barometer of international status, technological prowess and enhanced military capability. Rapid advancements in Information Technology, Internet and Communications are increasingly utilising space based assets. These assets play a decisive role in shaping the outcome of conflicts and are engines that drive economic growths. India and China are likely to be the economic powerhouses of the 21st Century. India is also emerging as a key balancer of Asian stability. By its combined military and space technology, India would be required to contain regional conflicts and prevent unscrupulous exploitation of the Indian Ocean region[9]. Therefore development of space power both for military and civilian use, especially as a force multiplier is must to climb up the pyramid of world power. 7. Perceptions determine actions. The militarys perception of the air and space environment influences the type of space forces it will develop in the future[10]. Therefore we need to decide the kind of space force which we need to develop to exploit Space medium to the maximum as a force multiplier to maintain edge in the region. Scope 8. This study analyses the exploitation of Space Force as a force multiplier in the Indian Context. Methods Of Data Collection 9. The information and data for this dissertation has been gathered through internet, various books, papers, journals and newspapers. In addition, lectures delivered by dignitaries at DSSC have been utilised to gather information. The bibliography of sources is appended at the end of the dissertation. Organisation Of The Dissertation 10. It is proposed to study the subject in the following manner:- (a) Chapter I Introduction and Methodology. (b) Chapter II Understanding Space power. (c) Chapter III Roles and Application of Space Power. (d) Chapter IV Space Power as Force Multiplier. (e) Chapter V Indian Capability and the Road Ahead. (f) Chapter VI Recommendations and Conclusion. CHAPTER – II UNDERSTANDING SPACE POWER The beginning of wisdom is calling things by their right names. —Confucius 1. Space has fascinated many thinkers, philosophers and Air Warriors equally for a long time. Many a researches and money has gone in exploring and exploiting space but still the concepts are not very clear to many of us. It is extremely important for us to have clear understanding of space before we can evaluate the role and utilization of space medium. Definitions 2. Space Space is void of substance, offers no protection from harmful radiation, and allows only the balance between thrust and gravity with which to maneuver.[14] 3. Escape Velocity Satellites maintain orbit around a planet (Earth in our case) at a particular speed at a given height. If the speed is increased, the satellite goes into a higher orbit. Escape velocity is the speed at which the centrifugal force becomes greater than the pull of planetary gravity. The object would then cease to be an Earth-satellite, and start moving away from the earth. At 500 km the escape velocity is 10.8 km/sec.[15] 4. Satellite Inclination Every satellite orbits within a plane that passes through Earths gravitational centre. The angle formed between that plane and that of the Earths equator, measured on its north bound pass over the equator, is known as satellite inclination. Orbits with inclination at or closer to 90 degrees are known as polar orbits. Equatorial orbits are those in or very close to the plane of the equator. The rest, between these two limits, are inclined orbits. The combination of the satellites own motion and that of the rotating planet beneath produces a ground track joining the successive points on the planet which fall directly beneath the satellite. The surface area of the planet in line-of-sight or direct communication with any satellite is a function of its altitude and ground track. In the lowest feasible orbits, the area that can be seen by satellite sensors is no more than that of one of Earths larger cities. 5. Decay With a perfectly spherical planet of even density, no air resistance, and no minute gravitational pulls from neighbouring bodies (such as Sun, the Moon, and the other planets), a satellite would stay in orbit forever. In the real world these factors upset the balance of forces which sustains the orbit, which causes it to decay, so that the satellite eventually falls to the Earth. For practical purposes, satellites which go below 300 km encounter air resistance serious enough to require intermittent use of on-board boosters to maintain their orbits.[16] 6. Low Earth Orbit (LEO). This orbit ranges from a height of 200 and 5000 km. Polar and highly inclined orbits are favoured for general reconnaissance missions since they give planet-wide coverage. The periods of such range between 90 minutes and a few hours. 7. Semi-synchronous Orbit . This is circular orbit at 20,700 km with a period of 12 hours. The term is sometimes extended to all orbits between LEO and this orbit. 8. Molniya Orbit . This is a highly elliptical orbit, at an altitude of between 500 40000 km, with a 12 hour period. This orbit is most stable at an inclination of 63 degrees. (At other inclinations gravitational anomalies resulting from irregularities in the shape and density of the planet cause the major axis of such an orbit the line joining the apogee and the perigee points to rotate inconveniently.) This orbit was used by the Soviet Union to provide satellite spending 11 hours out of 12 hours above the northern hemisphere.[17] 9. Geostationary Orbit (GEO) . This is a circular, equatorial orbit at an altitude of 35,700 km. With a period of 24 hours, such satellites appear to remain almost stationary above a fixed point over the equator. In practice, they sometimes describe a very small figure of eight ground tracks about such a point. Three or more evenly spaced geostationary satellites can cover most of the planet, except the Polar Regions. These satellites are mainly used for communications or early warning of missiles. 10. Geosynchronous Orbit . This orbit is also circular and inclined and is at an altitude of 35,700 km. This orbit has little military or other uses because of its large figure of eight ground tracks, depending on its inclination. In military discussions the term geostationary, is tending to be replaced by geosynchronous, because the former is the limiting case of the latter. Even a small inclination causes a geostationary satellite to become a strictly speaking geosynchronous one. Military geostationary satellites may sometimes have a use for such a ground track, though seldom for the much wider, true geosynchronous orbit.[18] 11. Super-synchronous Orbit . The orbits above GEO have had little use so far, but offer many options for future military satellites taking refuge from ground based or LEO anti-satellites. Certain points of equilibrium between solar, lunar and terrestrial gravitation are especially interesting.[19] 12. Near-Earth Orbit (NEO) or aerospace extends 50 to 200 kilometers above the Earths surface, incorporating the mesosphere and the lower edge of the ionosphere in an intermediate region where aerodynamics and ballistics interact or succeed each other. In the short term, NEO will remain the primary location for the deployment of manned and unmanned military systems and probable major space industrialization facilities such as a manned space operations center (SOC)[22]. 13. The cislunar zone consists of all space between NEO and Lunar Surface Orbit (LSO), including Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO). The cislunar zone provides military systems situated here the defensive option of a longer reaction time to implement countermeasures against Earth- or NEO-based intervention[23]. 14. LSO consists of the zone of space where the Moon orbits the Earth, including Near Lunar Orbit (NLO) or the space immediately surrounding the Moon. 15. The translunar zone is comprised of the space from LSO to approximately one million kilometers from the Earths surface, where the solar gravity well begins to predominate and includes the five Lagrangian points. These final zones will attain increasing military significance as the process of space industrialization evolves. Eventually the Moon and Lagrangian points could be used to dominate the entire Earth-Moon system.[24] 16. Outer Space In the denomination of legal material dealing with the space exploration and nearly the entire space law, the term outer space is commonly used. But this term has not been defined to date with precision despite many attempts undertaken by jurists, International non-governmental and the United Nations bodies[26]. 17. The tactical space environment The tactical space environment of the Earth-Moon system can be conceptualized as a series of gravity well zones that are somewhat analogous to terrestrial hills, promontories, and mountains in that much effort and energy must be initially expended to situate forces in such locations. Once attained, however, these positions can be used to dominate the terrain below with relative ease. Figure 1 illustrates in two-dimensional form the gravity well zones of the Earth-Moon system, which are in reality three dimensional spheres[27]. 18. During the next two decades, military space activities and the development of various commercial space enterprises (or space industrialization) will be primarily restricted to this system. Possible military missions in this tactical environment include direct intervention on the Earths surface form space, regulation of the flow of space traffic, protection of military and industrial space facilities, denial of strategic areas of space to others (such as choice satellite orbits at Geosynchronous Earth Orbit and the various Lagrangian points at which objects revolve with the same period as the gravitational Earth-Moon system and thus remain effectively stationary), and various surveillance, reconnaissance, navigation, command, control, and communication functions[28]. CLICHÉ ABOUT SPACE POWER 19. The space power being the latest addition to the force of a Nation, there is still a huge dilemma about its placement, its use whether military or civilian and also its control. Currently, a fully developed space power theory does not exist. USSPACECOM, recognizing the void, has commissioned Dr. Brian R. Sullivan as lead author to develop this theory.[29] Therefore there is requirement to develop a fully fledged theory and doctrine to guide the developed of space power straight from its infancy. 20. Space is the next great arena for exploration and exploitation. We are limited only by imagination to the wonders, challenges and excitement the next century will bring as far as space forces are concerned. Already, civil and commercial sectors have invested billions of dollars in space and the nations military recognizes its role to protect these interests. The debate within the military on how to best exploit this new medium continues. But there is a need to go over few of the basic issues about Space Power to understand it clearly. The militarys current view of the air and space environment seems to simultaneously focus on opposing relationships between the two mediums. Air and space represent two distinct realms and at the same time, they are difficult to separate because of their similarities. These two relationships exist simultaneously and come together to form the following organizational paradigm of the air and space environment: Space and the atmosphere represent two di stinct medium environments physically different from each other; while at the same time, they are physically linked, and theoretically and historically tied.[31]. 21. First of the issue, is regarding direct use of space as a Space power or weaponising of space to use it as a force itself. We must determine whether space power apply great power quickly to any tangible target on the planet? Many people would answer no to this question because of political restraints on weaponising space. Others would argue for an affirmative answer based on technical, if not political, feasibility. In either case, the question concerning the applicability of the essence remains assumed but undemonstrated. Or perhaps there exists a space power version of the essence that differs from all other military operations, including air power[32]. Also there are concerns regarding the future of space power and the kinds of military operations that are likely to migrate to space. Space may become another battle space, or it may become only a home to military operations focussed on non-lethal activities in support of combat elsewhere. So the major concern is whether space w ill be used as direct source of force or will continued to be used as a force multiplier only. 22. Why does the military need a space force? The answers to this question shape military space force development by providing a sense of long-term direction, describing how such a force would serve national interests, and prescribing a force structure to fulfill that need. They are foundational answers that ultimately form the basis for space power theory and enable the military to articulate and justify reasons for a military space force. As the military more clearly articulates why space forces are needed, the better it is able to identify specific requirements necessary to achieve those forces. Thus, this question and the next are closely tied together[33]. 23. What should the military do in space? The answers to this question bring the focus from broad to specific. They help formulate the functions and missions of a military space force, and provide the framework for establishing detailed force requirements. To summarize, the answers to the question of who establish the advocates for a military space force development. The answers to the questions of why and what together develop and identify long term direction, and offer short-term input to the resource allocation process.[34] 24. The next issue is to do with the control of space power. This will mainly emerge from our innovation, imagination and farsightedness. Air Power being the strongest contender of claiming the control of space, there is need to deeply study the relationship between Space power and Air Power. This relationship can be well understood only by defining and studying the relationship between space and Air. Who should lead and develop military space forces? This question addresses the need to focus on finding the best organization, or mix of organizations, to advocate a military space force. Military space advocates must be able to justify—on military grounds alone—the necessity of military forces in space. These organizations are the stewards that provide both administrative control over the forces that support military space power, and the war-fighting control of these forces during employment of that power. A space force advocate embraces and promotes the ideals for a mili tary space force, and garners the support necessary to establish such a force[35]. Air and Space relationship 25. The defining characteristic of air power is an operational regime ele ­vated above the earths surface. Conceptually, space power would seem to be more of the same at a higher elevation. The term aerospace, coined in the late 1950s, echoes this same theme, as do official pronouncements such as although there are physical differences between the atmosphere and space, there is no absolute boundary between them. The same basic military activities can be performed in each, albeit with different platforms and methods.[38] 26. Conceptually thinking, we cannot easily ignore the vast differences between operations in the atmosphere and in space? Current military thought suggests that space is a medium separate and distinct from the atmosphere with physical characteristics unique enough that a barrier forms between the two. The atmosphere is a realm of substance offering the advantages of protection from radiation, thermal transfer of heat and the ability to produce and control lift and drag. These aspects of the air medium make it considerably different than the realm of space.[40] 27. It is difficult to analyse these and many more issues dealing with space without a general, overarching theory of space power. The task is made even more difficult by several other factors, such as the limited experience base in military space operations, the tight security classification concerning much of what goes on in space, and the thoroughly sub-divided responsibility for space operations. Thus, we have a conundrum-a jig-saw puzzle that will someday picture how space power fits or doesnt fit with air power. Solving the puzzle represents a major leadership challenge.[42] CHAPTER – III Air and space power is a critical—and decisive—element in protecting our nation and deterring aggression. It will only remain so if we as professional airmen study, evaluate, and debate our capabilities and the environment of the future. Just as technology and world threat and opportunities change, so must our doctrine. We, each of us, must be the articulate and knowledgeable advocates of air and space power. —General Michael E. Ryan ROLES AND APPLICATIONS OF SPACE POWER Victory smiles upon those who anticipate the changes in the character of war not upon those who wait to adapt themselves after the changes occur. Guilio Douhet 1. Man has a compelling urge to explore, to discover and to try to go where no one has ever been before. As most of the Earth has already been explored and even though it is going to be there for a very long time, men have now turned to space exploration as their next objective.[43] 2. Thus as we race into the next decade, a new frontier seems to be opening up in space with vast potential for military, science and exploration activities. So far as the armed forces are concerned, like the sensor technology, satellites would provide them with unheard-of capabilities in a large number of fields.[44] 4. Today, events unfold before our eyes around the world as if we were there. We have advance warning of adverse weather as it develops. We can communicate with people 10 or 10,000 miles away with equal ease, and a small re ­ceiver tells us our exact position and how fast we are moving in the air, on land, or at sea. 5. Space power is becoming an in ­creasingly important aspect of na ­tional strength, but experts disagree about how best to develop its poten ­tial. Like airpower, space power relies heavily upon advanced technology, but technology is useless unless space professionals apply it properly. Air Force leaders recognize that the service needs to nurture a team of highly dedicated space professionals who are pre-pared to exploit advanced technologies and operating concepts. Today, space power pro ­vides supporting functions such as commu ­nications, reconnaissance, and signals from global positioning system (GPS) satellites— tomorrow, space may become the site of combat operations. Concern about the fu ­ture direction of military activities in space has spurred debate over which technologies to produce and how best to develop space professionals. Moral, theoretical, and doc ­trinal questions also loom large. Underlying all of these considerations are political and dip lomatic factors[45]. 6. New technologies move large amounts of data around the world at the speed of light. Al-though a century ago people would have con ­sidered such feats science fiction, modern space capabilities make these, and so many more things, unquestionable facts. Space power has transformed our society and our military. Today, at the outset of the twenty-first century, we simply cannot live—or fight and win—without it. 7. Although many people refer to Operation Desert Storm as the first space war, it did not mark the first use of space capabilities during conflict. During the war in Vietnam, space sys ­tems—communications and meteorological satellites—provided near-real-time data that was essential for combat operation The Gulf War of 1991, however, was the first conflict in history to make comprehensive use of space systems support. Since then, we have worked hard to integrate the high-tech advantages provided by speed-of-light space capabilities into all our forces—air, land, and sea. Those efforts significantly improved our American joint way of war, and they paid off during Op ­eration Iraqi Freedom. 8. American forces led a coalition that set benchmarks for speed, precision, lethality, reach, and flexibility. As President George W. Bush said on 1 May 2003 aboard the USS Abraham Lincoln, Operation Iraqi Freedom was carried out with a combination of preci ­sion and speed and boldness the enemy did not expect, and the world had not seen be-fore. From distant bases or ships at sea, we sent planes and missiles that could destroy an enemy division, or strike a single bunker. In a matter of minutes—not hours, days, or weeks as in past wars—commanders identified and engaged targets and received timely battle damage assessment. Lt Gen T. Michael Buzz Moseley, the combined force air component commander, reinforced the role that space capabilities played when he said, The satel ­lites have been just unbelievably capable . . . supporting conventional surface, naval, spe ­cial ops and air forces. Theyve made a huge difference for us. 9. The need to protect ones own space assets, and if necessary attack those of the bad guy, will equally inevitably move the war in the air into space. The USAF already has an F15-borne anti-satellite system. Other potential systems include a co-orbital satellite equipped with an explosive warhead or anti-satellite mines.- For every offensive system deployed, a potential adversary whose finances permit this sort of warfare, would have to field a defensive mechanism. This level of Star Wars may be beyond most nations. But the scope for information operations should not be underestimated particularly against commercial satellites the performance information for which is readily available on the Internet.[46] 10. Supporting Role 11. Ocean reconnaissance satellites can carry side-ways looking radars to enable them to locate ships and take other maritime measurements in all weather, and at all times of the day. Very precise satellite radars, using synthetic aperture techniques, may shortly be able to measure the level of the sea so accurately that they would be able to detect passage of a submarine beneath it in some areas.[47] 12. The most commonly used sensor in satellites is the camera. The photo reconnaissance cameras on satellites are sensitive to em radiation with a wave length of between 0.004 mm to 0.007 mm and in the IR region of wave length between 0.3 mm and 3000 mm.[48] 13. Photo reconnaissance satellites are the most important of reconnaissance satellites especially during peace time, and for monitoring conflicts around the world. Of all the satellites by China, USA and the erstwhile Soviet Union, about 40% have been used for photographic reconnaissance from LEO. Orbiting at altitudes as low as 200 km, some of these photo reconnaissance satellites are thought to resolve details smaller than 30 cm.[49] The Soviet satellites have a life span of between two weeks and two months. Until the early eighties their films were recovered only when the satellite was brought down, using re-entry trajectory and parachutes. Since they orbit below 200 km at their lowest point, they need regular boosting from on-board rockets to maintain orbit. It is believed that the digital film scanning and transmission is being used by the Russians now. In comparison the American LEO satellites have longer life spans than those of their Soviet counter-part. They are known to have been in orbit for seve ral months and can return film capsules to earth by ejecting them over sea (near Hawaii). These are either caught by aircraft or picked up by a back up ship. Photographs can also be developed and scanned on board the satellite and the information relayed back to ground stations immediately by use of radio signals. 14. Early warning satellites are equipped with infra-red detectors which can detect an ICBM, thereby providing the threatened country with a 30 minute warning. The United States has three geostationary early warning Defence Support Programme (DSP) satellites. One watches the Russian ICBM fields, and the other two the Pacific and Atlantic oceans for SLBM attacks. For geographical reasons, GEO was less attractive to the Soviet Union, and therefore they launched their early warning satellites in Molniya orbits. Complete coverage was obtained by a constellation of nine satellites, with shorter life spans than their American counter-parts. By ensuring the virtual impossibility of a surprise missile attack out of the blue, early warning satellites may be regarded as playing a stabilising role during peace time 15. These satellites have a dual character since during peace time they can help monitor the Limited Test Ban and Non-Proliferation Treaties by watching for above ground nuclear tests. The Unites States launched six successive pairs of super-synchronous Vela satellites for this purpose between 1963 and 1970. Designed at firs to operate for only six months, the first three pairs exceeded this limit by enormous margins, often working for nearly than 10 years. 16. Active Military Application Space can be defined as the new battlefield after Land, Sea and Air. It is the final frontier or final goal, which every one desires to conquer or reach. Space is fast emerging as not only the new Economic High Ground but also as the new military frontier of becoming a new Strategic High Ground.[50] 17. By the end of 1999, at least 2300 military oriented satellites have been launched. The functions of military satellites, which constitute about 75% of all satellites orbited, ranged from navigation, communications, meteorological and reconnaissance[51]. Space Based Lasers for Ballistic Missile Defense 18. Interest in utilizing space-based lasers (SBLs) for ballistic missile defense (BMD) arose when two facts emerged. First, ballistic missiles are relatively fragile and do not resist laser energy and secondly, chemical lasers could project missile killing amounts of energy over 3,000 kilometers. These two facts peaked political interest over the possibility of placing laser weapons in space. SBLs could be used to intercept ballistic missiles in their boost phase, thus dropping disabled missiles on an enemys own territory. 19. The Lethality of A Space-Based Laser 20. Delivering a high-intensity laser beam for a long enough time to disable a target is the objective of a laser weapon. Laser energy can damage missile boosters if the laser has a moderate intensity combined with a sustained dwell time on the booster, the laser will then burn through the missile skin. A 10 meter mirror with a hydrogen fluoride (HF) laser beam would yield a 0.32 micro radian divergence angle and create a laser spot 1.3 meters in diameter at a range of 4,000 meters. The distribution of 20 MW over the laser spot would create an energy flux of 1.5 kilowatts per square centimeter (kW/cm2). The laser spot would need to dwell on the target for 6.6 seconds to create the nominal lethal energy of 10 kilojoules per square centimeter (kJ/cm2).[56] Penetration deeper than this would not be required since the laser would not be in a position to attack missiles in flight until they had reached this altitude. Also, clouds could obscure the booster below a ceiling of 10 kilometers. Table 1: Requirements for several laser weapons ASAT Space ASAT Ground Space-based BMD Laser type chem (HF) chem (DF) chem (HF) Laser wavelength 2.7:m 3.8:m 2.7:m Laser location space ground space Target distance 3,000km 10km 3,0 Space Power as Force Multiplier Space Power as Force Multiplier CHAPTER – I INTRODUCTION 1. The Space has always been a great matter of interest to human race, which gazed and tried to explore this cosmic world for thousands of years. Even our own epics talk a lot about space and its utilisation. However, Science flourished during the European Renaissance and fundamental physical laws governing planetary motion were discovered, and the orbits of the planets around the Sun were calculated. The Chinese were the first to develop a rocket in around 1212 AD. In 1883, a Russian schoolmaster, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, first explained the mechanics of how a rocket could fly into space.[4]. Since then exploration and exploitation of the space has been a continued effort. This led to the unfolding of mysteries of the space world and thus using it for own advantages. 2. Military use of space started with the launch of an American reconnaissance satellite in 1960.[6]. 3. The phenomenal utilization and exploitation of the space medium has finally provided the users the power to gain advantage over the enemy. Traditionally, power has been related to explosive ordinance and target destruction. But in the post-Cold War world, the power most often delivered by airmen has taken the form of humanitarian aid: food, medical supplies, and heavy equipment.[8]. The meteorological satellites provide accurate weather data from any part of the world. Thus in past few years, space-based systems have enabled dramatic improvement in military and intelligence operations thus enhancing its capability, accuracy and fire power. Thus the Space medium emerging as Space Power and the most effective and widely used force multiplier. METHODOLOGY Statement Of Problem 4. To study and analyse the feasibility of Space Power to evolve as a frontline force multiplier for India and to critically examine the road ahead. Justification Of Study 5. Indias achievement in the field of space capability may not seem to be very advanced especially when compared with the accomplishments of the superpowers and elite members of the satellite club. However, one needs to look at the Indian space programme in isolation to fully understand the tremendous progress and achievements that have been made from such a humble beginning. 6. All the countries have developed launch vehicles as an offshoot of their ballistic missile projects, and their satellites were primarily intended for military use. Non- military applications were a spinoff of the military programmes, whereas India has developed space applications and launch vehicles for totally civilian use. The technology was also used within a broader framework to achieve socio-economic development, and military spin-offs have been incidental. Therefore, India has an inherent advantage as far as civilian support role is concerned however it needs special effort and attitude to develop military support application. Utilization of Space medium and Control of space based assets will be an important ingredient of future world power. President APJ Kalam has stated that accomplishments in space have traditionally been a barometer of international status, technological prowess and enhanced military capability. Rapid advancements in Information Technology, Internet and Communications are increasingly utilising space based assets. These assets play a decisive role in shaping the outcome of conflicts and are engines that drive economic growths. India and China are likely to be the economic powerhouses of the 21st Century. India is also emerging as a key balancer of Asian stability. By its combined military and space technology, India would be required to contain regional conflicts and prevent unscrupulous exploitation of the Indian Ocean region[9]. Therefore development of space power both for military and civilian use, especially as a force multiplier is must to climb up the pyramid of world power. 7. Perceptions determine actions. The militarys perception of the air and space environment influences the type of space forces it will develop in the future[10]. Therefore we need to decide the kind of space force which we need to develop to exploit Space medium to the maximum as a force multiplier to maintain edge in the region. Scope 8. This study analyses the exploitation of Space Force as a force multiplier in the Indian Context. Methods Of Data Collection 9. The information and data for this dissertation has been gathered through internet, various books, papers, journals and newspapers. In addition, lectures delivered by dignitaries at DSSC have been utilised to gather information. The bibliography of sources is appended at the end of the dissertation. Organisation Of The Dissertation 10. It is proposed to study the subject in the following manner:- (a) Chapter I Introduction and Methodology. (b) Chapter II Understanding Space power. (c) Chapter III Roles and Application of Space Power. (d) Chapter IV Space Power as Force Multiplier. (e) Chapter V Indian Capability and the Road Ahead. (f) Chapter VI Recommendations and Conclusion. CHAPTER – II UNDERSTANDING SPACE POWER The beginning of wisdom is calling things by their right names. —Confucius 1. Space has fascinated many thinkers, philosophers and Air Warriors equally for a long time. Many a researches and money has gone in exploring and exploiting space but still the concepts are not very clear to many of us. It is extremely important for us to have clear understanding of space before we can evaluate the role and utilization of space medium. Definitions 2. Space Space is void of substance, offers no protection from harmful radiation, and allows only the balance between thrust and gravity with which to maneuver.[14] 3. Escape Velocity Satellites maintain orbit around a planet (Earth in our case) at a particular speed at a given height. If the speed is increased, the satellite goes into a higher orbit. Escape velocity is the speed at which the centrifugal force becomes greater than the pull of planetary gravity. The object would then cease to be an Earth-satellite, and start moving away from the earth. At 500 km the escape velocity is 10.8 km/sec.[15] 4. Satellite Inclination Every satellite orbits within a plane that passes through Earths gravitational centre. The angle formed between that plane and that of the Earths equator, measured on its north bound pass over the equator, is known as satellite inclination. Orbits with inclination at or closer to 90 degrees are known as polar orbits. Equatorial orbits are those in or very close to the plane of the equator. The rest, between these two limits, are inclined orbits. The combination of the satellites own motion and that of the rotating planet beneath produces a ground track joining the successive points on the planet which fall directly beneath the satellite. The surface area of the planet in line-of-sight or direct communication with any satellite is a function of its altitude and ground track. In the lowest feasible orbits, the area that can be seen by satellite sensors is no more than that of one of Earths larger cities. 5. Decay With a perfectly spherical planet of even density, no air resistance, and no minute gravitational pulls from neighbouring bodies (such as Sun, the Moon, and the other planets), a satellite would stay in orbit forever. In the real world these factors upset the balance of forces which sustains the orbit, which causes it to decay, so that the satellite eventually falls to the Earth. For practical purposes, satellites which go below 300 km encounter air resistance serious enough to require intermittent use of on-board boosters to maintain their orbits.[16] 6. Low Earth Orbit (LEO). This orbit ranges from a height of 200 and 5000 km. Polar and highly inclined orbits are favoured for general reconnaissance missions since they give planet-wide coverage. The periods of such range between 90 minutes and a few hours. 7. Semi-synchronous Orbit . This is circular orbit at 20,700 km with a period of 12 hours. The term is sometimes extended to all orbits between LEO and this orbit. 8. Molniya Orbit . This is a highly elliptical orbit, at an altitude of between 500 40000 km, with a 12 hour period. This orbit is most stable at an inclination of 63 degrees. (At other inclinations gravitational anomalies resulting from irregularities in the shape and density of the planet cause the major axis of such an orbit the line joining the apogee and the perigee points to rotate inconveniently.) This orbit was used by the Soviet Union to provide satellite spending 11 hours out of 12 hours above the northern hemisphere.[17] 9. Geostationary Orbit (GEO) . This is a circular, equatorial orbit at an altitude of 35,700 km. With a period of 24 hours, such satellites appear to remain almost stationary above a fixed point over the equator. In practice, they sometimes describe a very small figure of eight ground tracks about such a point. Three or more evenly spaced geostationary satellites can cover most of the planet, except the Polar Regions. These satellites are mainly used for communications or early warning of missiles. 10. Geosynchronous Orbit . This orbit is also circular and inclined and is at an altitude of 35,700 km. This orbit has little military or other uses because of its large figure of eight ground tracks, depending on its inclination. In military discussions the term geostationary, is tending to be replaced by geosynchronous, because the former is the limiting case of the latter. Even a small inclination causes a geostationary satellite to become a strictly speaking geosynchronous one. Military geostationary satellites may sometimes have a use for such a ground track, though seldom for the much wider, true geosynchronous orbit.[18] 11. Super-synchronous Orbit . The orbits above GEO have had little use so far, but offer many options for future military satellites taking refuge from ground based or LEO anti-satellites. Certain points of equilibrium between solar, lunar and terrestrial gravitation are especially interesting.[19] 12. Near-Earth Orbit (NEO) or aerospace extends 50 to 200 kilometers above the Earths surface, incorporating the mesosphere and the lower edge of the ionosphere in an intermediate region where aerodynamics and ballistics interact or succeed each other. In the short term, NEO will remain the primary location for the deployment of manned and unmanned military systems and probable major space industrialization facilities such as a manned space operations center (SOC)[22]. 13. The cislunar zone consists of all space between NEO and Lunar Surface Orbit (LSO), including Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO). The cislunar zone provides military systems situated here the defensive option of a longer reaction time to implement countermeasures against Earth- or NEO-based intervention[23]. 14. LSO consists of the zone of space where the Moon orbits the Earth, including Near Lunar Orbit (NLO) or the space immediately surrounding the Moon. 15. The translunar zone is comprised of the space from LSO to approximately one million kilometers from the Earths surface, where the solar gravity well begins to predominate and includes the five Lagrangian points. These final zones will attain increasing military significance as the process of space industrialization evolves. Eventually the Moon and Lagrangian points could be used to dominate the entire Earth-Moon system.[24] 16. Outer Space In the denomination of legal material dealing with the space exploration and nearly the entire space law, the term outer space is commonly used. But this term has not been defined to date with precision despite many attempts undertaken by jurists, International non-governmental and the United Nations bodies[26]. 17. The tactical space environment The tactical space environment of the Earth-Moon system can be conceptualized as a series of gravity well zones that are somewhat analogous to terrestrial hills, promontories, and mountains in that much effort and energy must be initially expended to situate forces in such locations. Once attained, however, these positions can be used to dominate the terrain below with relative ease. Figure 1 illustrates in two-dimensional form the gravity well zones of the Earth-Moon system, which are in reality three dimensional spheres[27]. 18. During the next two decades, military space activities and the development of various commercial space enterprises (or space industrialization) will be primarily restricted to this system. Possible military missions in this tactical environment include direct intervention on the Earths surface form space, regulation of the flow of space traffic, protection of military and industrial space facilities, denial of strategic areas of space to others (such as choice satellite orbits at Geosynchronous Earth Orbit and the various Lagrangian points at which objects revolve with the same period as the gravitational Earth-Moon system and thus remain effectively stationary), and various surveillance, reconnaissance, navigation, command, control, and communication functions[28]. CLICHÉ ABOUT SPACE POWER 19. The space power being the latest addition to the force of a Nation, there is still a huge dilemma about its placement, its use whether military or civilian and also its control. Currently, a fully developed space power theory does not exist. USSPACECOM, recognizing the void, has commissioned Dr. Brian R. Sullivan as lead author to develop this theory.[29] Therefore there is requirement to develop a fully fledged theory and doctrine to guide the developed of space power straight from its infancy. 20. Space is the next great arena for exploration and exploitation. We are limited only by imagination to the wonders, challenges and excitement the next century will bring as far as space forces are concerned. Already, civil and commercial sectors have invested billions of dollars in space and the nations military recognizes its role to protect these interests. The debate within the military on how to best exploit this new medium continues. But there is a need to go over few of the basic issues about Space Power to understand it clearly. The militarys current view of the air and space environment seems to simultaneously focus on opposing relationships between the two mediums. Air and space represent two distinct realms and at the same time, they are difficult to separate because of their similarities. These two relationships exist simultaneously and come together to form the following organizational paradigm of the air and space environment: Space and the atmosphere represent two di stinct medium environments physically different from each other; while at the same time, they are physically linked, and theoretically and historically tied.[31]. 21. First of the issue, is regarding direct use of space as a Space power or weaponising of space to use it as a force itself. We must determine whether space power apply great power quickly to any tangible target on the planet? Many people would answer no to this question because of political restraints on weaponising space. Others would argue for an affirmative answer based on technical, if not political, feasibility. In either case, the question concerning the applicability of the essence remains assumed but undemonstrated. Or perhaps there exists a space power version of the essence that differs from all other military operations, including air power[32]. Also there are concerns regarding the future of space power and the kinds of military operations that are likely to migrate to space. Space may become another battle space, or it may become only a home to military operations focussed on non-lethal activities in support of combat elsewhere. So the major concern is whether space w ill be used as direct source of force or will continued to be used as a force multiplier only. 22. Why does the military need a space force? The answers to this question shape military space force development by providing a sense of long-term direction, describing how such a force would serve national interests, and prescribing a force structure to fulfill that need. They are foundational answers that ultimately form the basis for space power theory and enable the military to articulate and justify reasons for a military space force. As the military more clearly articulates why space forces are needed, the better it is able to identify specific requirements necessary to achieve those forces. Thus, this question and the next are closely tied together[33]. 23. What should the military do in space? The answers to this question bring the focus from broad to specific. They help formulate the functions and missions of a military space force, and provide the framework for establishing detailed force requirements. To summarize, the answers to the question of who establish the advocates for a military space force development. The answers to the questions of why and what together develop and identify long term direction, and offer short-term input to the resource allocation process.[34] 24. The next issue is to do with the control of space power. This will mainly emerge from our innovation, imagination and farsightedness. Air Power being the strongest contender of claiming the control of space, there is need to deeply study the relationship between Space power and Air Power. This relationship can be well understood only by defining and studying the relationship between space and Air. Who should lead and develop military space forces? This question addresses the need to focus on finding the best organization, or mix of organizations, to advocate a military space force. Military space advocates must be able to justify—on military grounds alone—the necessity of military forces in space. These organizations are the stewards that provide both administrative control over the forces that support military space power, and the war-fighting control of these forces during employment of that power. A space force advocate embraces and promotes the ideals for a mili tary space force, and garners the support necessary to establish such a force[35]. Air and Space relationship 25. The defining characteristic of air power is an operational regime ele ­vated above the earths surface. Conceptually, space power would seem to be more of the same at a higher elevation. The term aerospace, coined in the late 1950s, echoes this same theme, as do official pronouncements such as although there are physical differences between the atmosphere and space, there is no absolute boundary between them. The same basic military activities can be performed in each, albeit with different platforms and methods.[38] 26. Conceptually thinking, we cannot easily ignore the vast differences between operations in the atmosphere and in space? Current military thought suggests that space is a medium separate and distinct from the atmosphere with physical characteristics unique enough that a barrier forms between the two. The atmosphere is a realm of substance offering the advantages of protection from radiation, thermal transfer of heat and the ability to produce and control lift and drag. These aspects of the air medium make it considerably different than the realm of space.[40] 27. It is difficult to analyse these and many more issues dealing with space without a general, overarching theory of space power. The task is made even more difficult by several other factors, such as the limited experience base in military space operations, the tight security classification concerning much of what goes on in space, and the thoroughly sub-divided responsibility for space operations. Thus, we have a conundrum-a jig-saw puzzle that will someday picture how space power fits or doesnt fit with air power. Solving the puzzle represents a major leadership challenge.[42] CHAPTER – III Air and space power is a critical—and decisive—element in protecting our nation and deterring aggression. It will only remain so if we as professional airmen study, evaluate, and debate our capabilities and the environment of the future. Just as technology and world threat and opportunities change, so must our doctrine. We, each of us, must be the articulate and knowledgeable advocates of air and space power. —General Michael E. Ryan ROLES AND APPLICATIONS OF SPACE POWER Victory smiles upon those who anticipate the changes in the character of war not upon those who wait to adapt themselves after the changes occur. Guilio Douhet 1. Man has a compelling urge to explore, to discover and to try to go where no one has ever been before. As most of the Earth has already been explored and even though it is going to be there for a very long time, men have now turned to space exploration as their next objective.[43] 2. Thus as we race into the next decade, a new frontier seems to be opening up in space with vast potential for military, science and exploration activities. So far as the armed forces are concerned, like the sensor technology, satellites would provide them with unheard-of capabilities in a large number of fields.[44] 4. Today, events unfold before our eyes around the world as if we were there. We have advance warning of adverse weather as it develops. We can communicate with people 10 or 10,000 miles away with equal ease, and a small re ­ceiver tells us our exact position and how fast we are moving in the air, on land, or at sea. 5. Space power is becoming an in ­creasingly important aspect of na ­tional strength, but experts disagree about how best to develop its poten ­tial. Like airpower, space power relies heavily upon advanced technology, but technology is useless unless space professionals apply it properly. Air Force leaders recognize that the service needs to nurture a team of highly dedicated space professionals who are pre-pared to exploit advanced technologies and operating concepts. Today, space power pro ­vides supporting functions such as commu ­nications, reconnaissance, and signals from global positioning system (GPS) satellites— tomorrow, space may become the site of combat operations. Concern about the fu ­ture direction of military activities in space has spurred debate over which technologies to produce and how best to develop space professionals. Moral, theoretical, and doc ­trinal questions also loom large. Underlying all of these considerations are political and dip lomatic factors[45]. 6. New technologies move large amounts of data around the world at the speed of light. Al-though a century ago people would have con ­sidered such feats science fiction, modern space capabilities make these, and so many more things, unquestionable facts. Space power has transformed our society and our military. Today, at the outset of the twenty-first century, we simply cannot live—or fight and win—without it. 7. Although many people refer to Operation Desert Storm as the first space war, it did not mark the first use of space capabilities during conflict. During the war in Vietnam, space sys ­tems—communications and meteorological satellites—provided near-real-time data that was essential for combat operation The Gulf War of 1991, however, was the first conflict in history to make comprehensive use of space systems support. Since then, we have worked hard to integrate the high-tech advantages provided by speed-of-light space capabilities into all our forces—air, land, and sea. Those efforts significantly improved our American joint way of war, and they paid off during Op ­eration Iraqi Freedom. 8. American forces led a coalition that set benchmarks for speed, precision, lethality, reach, and flexibility. As President George W. Bush said on 1 May 2003 aboard the USS Abraham Lincoln, Operation Iraqi Freedom was carried out with a combination of preci ­sion and speed and boldness the enemy did not expect, and the world had not seen be-fore. From distant bases or ships at sea, we sent planes and missiles that could destroy an enemy division, or strike a single bunker. In a matter of minutes—not hours, days, or weeks as in past wars—commanders identified and engaged targets and received timely battle damage assessment. Lt Gen T. Michael Buzz Moseley, the combined force air component commander, reinforced the role that space capabilities played when he said, The satel ­lites have been just unbelievably capable . . . supporting conventional surface, naval, spe ­cial ops and air forces. Theyve made a huge difference for us. 9. The need to protect ones own space assets, and if necessary attack those of the bad guy, will equally inevitably move the war in the air into space. The USAF already has an F15-borne anti-satellite system. Other potential systems include a co-orbital satellite equipped with an explosive warhead or anti-satellite mines.- For every offensive system deployed, a potential adversary whose finances permit this sort of warfare, would have to field a defensive mechanism. This level of Star Wars may be beyond most nations. But the scope for information operations should not be underestimated particularly against commercial satellites the performance information for which is readily available on the Internet.[46] 10. Supporting Role 11. Ocean reconnaissance satellites can carry side-ways looking radars to enable them to locate ships and take other maritime measurements in all weather, and at all times of the day. Very precise satellite radars, using synthetic aperture techniques, may shortly be able to measure the level of the sea so accurately that they would be able to detect passage of a submarine beneath it in some areas.[47] 12. The most commonly used sensor in satellites is the camera. The photo reconnaissance cameras on satellites are sensitive to em radiation with a wave length of between 0.004 mm to 0.007 mm and in the IR region of wave length between 0.3 mm and 3000 mm.[48] 13. Photo reconnaissance satellites are the most important of reconnaissance satellites especially during peace time, and for monitoring conflicts around the world. Of all the satellites by China, USA and the erstwhile Soviet Union, about 40% have been used for photographic reconnaissance from LEO. Orbiting at altitudes as low as 200 km, some of these photo reconnaissance satellites are thought to resolve details smaller than 30 cm.[49] The Soviet satellites have a life span of between two weeks and two months. Until the early eighties their films were recovered only when the satellite was brought down, using re-entry trajectory and parachutes. Since they orbit below 200 km at their lowest point, they need regular boosting from on-board rockets to maintain orbit. It is believed that the digital film scanning and transmission is being used by the Russians now. In comparison the American LEO satellites have longer life spans than those of their Soviet counter-part. They are known to have been in orbit for seve ral months and can return film capsules to earth by ejecting them over sea (near Hawaii). These are either caught by aircraft or picked up by a back up ship. Photographs can also be developed and scanned on board the satellite and the information relayed back to ground stations immediately by use of radio signals. 14. Early warning satellites are equipped with infra-red detectors which can detect an ICBM, thereby providing the threatened country with a 30 minute warning. The United States has three geostationary early warning Defence Support Programme (DSP) satellites. One watches the Russian ICBM fields, and the other two the Pacific and Atlantic oceans for SLBM attacks. For geographical reasons, GEO was less attractive to the Soviet Union, and therefore they launched their early warning satellites in Molniya orbits. Complete coverage was obtained by a constellation of nine satellites, with shorter life spans than their American counter-parts. By ensuring the virtual impossibility of a surprise missile attack out of the blue, early warning satellites may be regarded as playing a stabilising role during peace time 15. These satellites have a dual character since during peace time they can help monitor the Limited Test Ban and Non-Proliferation Treaties by watching for above ground nuclear tests. The Unites States launched six successive pairs of super-synchronous Vela satellites for this purpose between 1963 and 1970. Designed at firs to operate for only six months, the first three pairs exceeded this limit by enormous margins, often working for nearly than 10 years. 16. Active Military Application Space can be defined as the new battlefield after Land, Sea and Air. It is the final frontier or final goal, which every one desires to conquer or reach. Space is fast emerging as not only the new Economic High Ground but also as the new military frontier of becoming a new Strategic High Ground.[50] 17. By the end of 1999, at least 2300 military oriented satellites have been launched. The functions of military satellites, which constitute about 75% of all satellites orbited, ranged from navigation, communications, meteorological and reconnaissance[51]. Space Based Lasers for Ballistic Missile Defense 18. Interest in utilizing space-based lasers (SBLs) for ballistic missile defense (BMD) arose when two facts emerged. First, ballistic missiles are relatively fragile and do not resist laser energy and secondly, chemical lasers could project missile killing amounts of energy over 3,000 kilometers. These two facts peaked political interest over the possibility of placing laser weapons in space. SBLs could be used to intercept ballistic missiles in their boost phase, thus dropping disabled missiles on an enemys own territory. 19. The Lethality of A Space-Based Laser 20. Delivering a high-intensity laser beam for a long enough time to disable a target is the objective of a laser weapon. Laser energy can damage missile boosters if the laser has a moderate intensity combined with a sustained dwell time on the booster, the laser will then burn through the missile skin. A 10 meter mirror with a hydrogen fluoride (HF) laser beam would yield a 0.32 micro radian divergence angle and create a laser spot 1.3 meters in diameter at a range of 4,000 meters. The distribution of 20 MW over the laser spot would create an energy flux of 1.5 kilowatts per square centimeter (kW/cm2). The laser spot would need to dwell on the target for 6.6 seconds to create the nominal lethal energy of 10 kilojoules per square centimeter (kJ/cm2).[56] Penetration deeper than this would not be required since the laser would not be in a position to attack missiles in flight until they had reached this altitude. Also, clouds could obscure the booster below a ceiling of 10 kilometers. Table 1: Requirements for several laser weapons ASAT Space ASAT Ground Space-based BMD Laser type chem (HF) chem (DF) chem (HF) Laser wavelength 2.7:m 3.8:m 2.7:m Laser location space ground space Target distance 3,000km 10km 3,0